Errata: Corrections, revisions, or clarifications made to IEER printed materials

"It was found that an average of 33% and a maximum of 47% of yearly-averaged wind power from interconnected farms can be used as reliable, baseload electric power. Equally significant, interconnecting multiple wind farms to a common point, then connecting that point to a far-away city can allow the long-distance portion of transmission capacity to be reduced, for example, by 20% with only a 1.6% loss of energy."

"It was found that an average of 33% and a maximum of 47% of yearly averaged wind power from interconnected farms can be used as reliable, baseload electric power. Equally significant, interconnecting multiple wind farms to a common point and then connecting that point to a far-away city can allow the long-distance portion of transmission capacity to be reduced, for example, by 20% with only a 1.6% loss of energy."

Cristina L. Archer and Mark Z. Jacobson. "Supplying Baseload Power and Reducing Transmission Requirements by Interconnecting Wind Farms." Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, v.46 (November 2007) pages 1701-1717. On the web at http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/winds/aj07_jamc.pdf.

"For example, one gram (approximately the weight of a quarter of a teaspoon of salt) of tritium in tritiated water will contaminate almost 500 billion gallons of water up to the current drinking water limit of 20,000 picocuries per liter set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)."

"For example, one gram (approximately the weight of a quarter of a teaspoon of salt) of tritium in tritiated water will contaminate almost 500 billion liters of water up to the current drinking water limit of 20,000 picocuries per liter set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)."

14. Keynes' ideas are set forth in Proposals for an International Clearing Union, Draft of the British government's proposal sent to U.S. Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau, Jr. by the British War Cabinet, Official Committee on the Post-War External Economic Problems and Anglo-American Co-operation, August 28, 1942. On the Web at http://e-server.e.u-tokyo.ac.jp/Exhibition/keynes/pdf/62.pdf.

14. Keynes' ideas are set forth in Proposals for an International Clearing Union, Draft of the British government's proposal sent to U.S. Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau, Jr. by the British War Cabinet, Official Committee on the Post-War External Economic Problems and Anglo-American Co-operation, August 28, 1942. On the Web at http://www.lib.e.u-tokyo.ac.jp/keynes_harrod/pdf/62.pdf.

"While PBMRs would reduce the amount of waste volume per unit of power production, there would still be an enormous amount of radioactive waste that would result, posing the familiar problem of what to do with long-lived radioactive waste."

"While the amount of radioactivity present in the reactor at any time per unit of power produced would be less in PBMRs than in LWRs, the volume of spent fuel would be considerably greater, posing the familiar problem of what to do with long-lived radioactive waste."

They [chemical reactions resulting from radiolysis] also frequently result in the generation of hydrogen gas due to the radiolysis of water and of organic compounds, as well as of other toxic and flammable compounds.

Radiolysis of waste and organic compounds frequently results in the generation of hydrogen gas, as well as of other toxic and flammable compounds.

• 2 or 56 This report is focused on members of the general public (with the exception of pregnant women in the workplace). Its recommendations are focused on nuclear fuel cycle facilities. They do not concern workers in any workplaces, such as industrial or medical workplaces, where there may be radiation producing devices or radionuclides, whether or not workers in such facilities are radiation workers or members of the general public at present.
• 3 or 57 Doses in this report are total effective dose equivalent, unless otherwise specified. It should be noted that we only address nuclear fuel cycle and nuclear weapons facilities in this report. Specifically, we are not addressing medical, academic and other similar facilities in this report.
• 5 or 59 This regulation limits the annual dose equivalent to “25 millirems to the whole body, 75 millirems to the thyroid, and 25 millirems to any other organ of any member of the public….” with the exception of doses from radon and its decay products (“daughters”).
• 6 or 60 See Makhijani 2005.

At 15 percent conversion efficiency, available today, parking lot PV installations could supply more than much of the electricity generated in the United States today.

Solar electric systems can also be used in more centralized installations. At 15 percent efficiency, a 1,000 MW plant in the Southwest (that is, in a favorable area for solar) would occupy about 20 square kilometers for a flat plate, non-tracking system. Tracking systems need more land area because the arrays require more space between elements to avoid shading as they rotate. Rotation on two axes increases area further. However, tracking systems generate more electricity per unit of installed capacity, creating a trade-off between land area and installed capacity. Figure 3-6 (see color insert) is a map of the continental United States, published by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, showing annual average incident solar radiation on a device that turns to face the sun. Figure 3-6 shows that there are large areas in the Southwest which are favorable to solar energy (more than 6 kWh per square meter per day). Much of the rest of the United States has an insolation rate of 4 to 5 kWh per square meter per day. The insolation values have been averaged day and night, over the entire year. The semi-arid and desert areas in the Southwest and West not only have the greatest incident energy, but also the greatest number of cloudless days. Those regions are therefore excellent candidates for central station solar PV, especially since this technology, unlike fossil fuel and nuclear plants, does not require cooling water. At 15 percent efficiency, the area requirements in the Southwest for generating one-fourth of the 2007 U.S. electricity output would be on the order of 3,000 to 4,000 square miles, for non-tracking systems. The area for tracking systems would be considerably larger.

Solar photovoltaic cells also do not take up much land. In fact, installations on rooftops and parking lots take up no additional land. Assuming that half of the large- and intermediate-scale installations are associated with commercial parking lots and rooftops, the land-area requirements for solar PV in the reference scenario are rather modest - about 860 1,800 square miles, which is equal to a square about 29 42 miles on the side, assuming the central station installations are in sunny areas. This includes a 30 percent allowance for roads, space between the PV arrays, and infrastructure.

We estimate solar thermal electric power production land requirements would be about 210 1,150 square miles. The trough or parabolic reflectors that track the sun in such power plants capture solar energy much more efficiently than solar PV, though much of that advantage is lost in the thermal electricity production cycle as waste heat.

Overall, the total land-area requirements in the reference scenario for wind and solar energy (other than parking lots and rooftops) would be about 1,560 3,440 square miles, which is a square almost 40 59 miles to the side.

1. Wind capacity factor = 30% and land footprint per megawatt = 0.6 hectares
2. Solar PV efficiency = 15%; generation rate = 120 kWh/m2/yr.
3. Solar thermal: generation rate = 75 kWh/m2/yr.

• Bender, 2002 Bender, Hal. Examples [class notes for Chemistry 105, Lesson 3]. Oregon City, OR: Clackamas Community College. Distance Learning, 2002. http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/ch105-03/examples1.htm. (Viewed December 9, 2002).
• Wick, 1980 Wick, O.J., ed. Plutonium Handbook, A Guide to the Technology. La Grange Park, IL: American Nuclear Society, 1980.

At 15 percent conversion efficiency, available today, parking lot PV installations could supply more than much of the electricity generated in the United States today.

Solar electric systems can also be used in more centralized installations. At 15 percent efficiency, a 1,000 MW plant in the Southwest (that is, in a favorable area for solar) would occupy about 20 square kilometers for a flat plate, non-tracking system. Tracking systems need more land area because the arrays require more space between elements to avoid shading as they rotate. Rotation on two axes increases area further. However, tracking systems generate more electricity per unit of installed capacity, creating a trade-off between land area and installed capacity. Figure 3-6 (see color insert) is a map of the continental United States, published by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, showing annual average incident solar radiation on a device that turns to face the sun. Figure 3-6 shows that there are large areas in the Southwest which are favorable to solar energy (more than 6 kWh per square meter per day). Much of the rest of the United States has an insolation rate of 4 to 5 kWh per square meter per day. The insolation values have been averaged day and night, over the entire year. The semi-arid and desert areas in the Southwest and West not only have the greatest incident energy, but also the greatest number of cloudless days. Those regions are therefore excellent candidates for central station solar PV, especially since this technology, unlike fossil fuel and nuclear plants, does not require cooling water. At 15 percent efficiency, the area requirements in the Southwest for generating one-fourth of the 2007 U.S. electricity output would be on the order of 3,000 to 4,000 square miles, for non-tracking systems. The area for tracking systems would be considerably larger.

Solar photovoltaic cells also do not take up much land. In fact, installations on rooftops and parking lots take up no additional land. Assuming that half of the large- and intermediate-scale installations are associated with commercial parking lots and rooftops, the land-area requirements for solar PV in the reference scenario are rather modest - about 860 1,800 square miles, which is equal to a square about 29 42 miles on the side, assuming the central station installations are in sunny areas. This includes a 30 percent allowance for roads, space between the PV arrays, and infrastructure.

We estimate solar thermal electric power production land requirements would be about 210 1,150 square miles. The trough or parabolic reflectors that track the sun in such power plants capture solar energy much more efficiently than solar PV, though much of that advantage is lost in the thermal electricity production cycle as waste heat.

Overall, the total land-area requirements in the reference scenario for wind and solar energy (other than parking lots and rooftops) would be about 1,560 3,440 square miles, which is a square almost 40 59 miles to the side.

1. Wind capacity factor = 30% and land footprint per megawatt = 0.6 hectares
2. Solar PV efficiency = 15%; generation rate = 120 kWh/m2/yr.
3. Solar thermal: generation rate = 75 kWh/m2/yr.